Chemical Biomarkers of Diffusse Axonal Injury
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/11.2/72Keywords:
TAI biomarkers, traumatic brain injury, traumatic axonal injury, diffuse axonal injury.Abstract
Craniocerebral trauma is the most common cause of death and post-traumatic disability in people under 45 years of age. In Romania, the annual incidence shows, that for every 100,000 inhabitants, there are 300 cases of craniocerebral trauma that require specialized medical assistance. Craniocerebral traumas are the most common types of traumas encountered in current forensic practice. Research on the mechanisms of injury, the timing of head trauma and the establishment of causes of death remain relevant. Establishing the traumatic moment implies both the distinction between pre-mortem and post-mortem injuries but also considerations regarding the post-traumatic survival interval. Regarding the elucidation of the moment of occurrence of the craniocerebral trauma from the forensic point of view, a satisfactory result has not been reached so far. The classic hypothesis regarding the development of traumatic brain injuries shows that they are the result of primary traumatic injuries due to cell necrosis combined with the inflammatory brain response that causes secondary brain injuries.
It was considered that post-traumatic neuronal losses are strictly due to necrosis and inflammation, and cellular apoptosis being a physiological process, does not play a role in this process. Due to recent experimental data, brain cell apoptosis has begun to be reevaluated. The pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury is far from being fully understood, with the idea that apoptosis would play an even more important role than originally thought. Specifically, damaged brain cells release neuromodulatory substances that can lead to late-onset neuronal damage long after necrotic and inflammatory brain phenomena have ceased to act. These neuronal cell losses are responsible for the development of various neurological deficits and post-traumatic sequelae.
References
Ahmadzadeh, S. R., Jamisola, R. S., Kormushev, P. & Caldwell, D. G. (2014). Learning Reactive Robot Behavior for Autonomous Valve Turning. IEEE International Conference on Humanoid Robots, Spain. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4863.7441 .
Anderson, K. J., Scheff, S. W., Miller, K. M., Roberts, K. N., Gilmer, L. K., Yang, C. & Shaw, G. (2008). The phosphorylated axonal form of the neurofilament subunit NF-h (pNF-h) as a blood biomarker of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 25(9), 1079-1085. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2007.0488
Barkhoudarian, G., Hovda, D. A. & Giza, C.C. (2011). The molecular pathophysiology of concussive brain injury. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 30(1), 33-48.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2010.09.001
Berger, R. P., Beers, R. S., Richichi, R., Wiesman, D. & Adelson, P. D. (2007). Serum biomarker concentrations and outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 24(12), 1793-1801. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2007.0316
Bigler, E. D. (2012). Mild traumatic brain injury: The elusive timing of “recovery”. Neuroscience Letters, 509(1),1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.009
Blyth, B. J., Farhavar, A., Gee, C., Hawthorn, B., He, H., Nayak, A., Stocklein, V. & Bazarian, J.J. (2009). Validation of serum markers for blood-brain barrier disruption in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 26, 1497–1507.
https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2008.0738
Brophy, G. M., Pineda, J. A., Papa, L., Lewis, S. B., Valadka, A. B., Hannay, H. J., Heaton, S. C., Demery, J. A., Liu, M. C., Tepas, J. J., 3rd, Gabrielli, A., Robicsek, S., Wang, K. K., Robertson, C. S., & Hayes, R. L. (2009). alphaII-Spectrin breakdown product cerebrospinal fluid exposure metrics suggest differences in cellular injury mechanisms after severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 26(4), 471–479.
https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2008.0657
Bulgaru-Iliescu, D., Knieling, A. & Scripcaru, C. (2015). Forensic medicine (1st ed.). Editura „Gr. T. Popa”, UMF Iasi.
Christman, C. W., Grady, M. S., Walker, S. A., Holloway, K. L. & Povlishock, J. T. (1994). Ultrastructural studies of diffuse axonal injury in humans. Journal of Neurotrauma, 11(2),173-186. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1994.11.173
David, S., Knieling, A., Scripcaru, C., Diac, M. M., Sandu, I. & Bulgaru-Iliescu, D. (2017). Study of Carbon Monoxide Intoxication in Fire Victimis. Revista de Chimie, 68(12), 2932-2935. https://doi.org/10.37358/RC.17.12.6010
Greer, J. E., Hanell, A., Mcginn, M. J. & Povlishock, J. T. (2013). Mild traumatic brain injury in the mouse induces axotomy primarily within the axon initial segment. Acta Neuropathologica, 126(1), 59-74.
Hunea, I., Damian, S. I., David, S., Diac, M. M., Bulgaru-Iliescu, D. & Ciocoiu, M. (2017). Brief Literature Review on the Mechanisms Involved in Producing Axial Difussion Injury. Brain-Broad Research In Artificial Intelligence And Neuroscience, 8(4), 91-98.
Iov, J. C. (2015). Specific Issues of Electronic Medical Records. In A. Sandu, A. Frunza, T. Ciulei, G. Gorghiu, A. Petrovici (2015). Rethinking Social Action. Core Values, (699- 704). Bologna, Italy: Editografica.
Iwata, A., Stys, P. K., Wolf, J. A., Chen, X. H., Taylor, A. G., Meaney, D. F, & Smith, D. H. (2004). Traumatic axonal injury induces proteolytic cleavage of the voltage-gated sodium channels modulated by tetrodotoxin and protease inhibitors. The Journal of Neuroscience, 24(19), 4605-4613.
https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0515-03.2004
Jeter, C. B., Hergenroeder. G. W., Hylin, M. J., Redell, J. B., Moore, A. N. & Dash, P. K. (2013). Biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of mild traumatic brain injury/concussion. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30(8), 657-670. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2439
Kawata, K., Liu, C.Y., Merkel, S.F., Ramirez, S. H., Tierney, R.T. & Langford, D. (2016). Blood biomarkers for brain injury: what are we measuring? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 460-473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.009
Knieling, A., David, S., Damian, S. I., Bulgaru-Iliescu, D. & Iov, C. J. (2017). Death moment estimation in stillbirth. Romanian Journal of Legal Medicine, 25(3), 251-255. https://doi.org/10.4323/rjlm.2017.251
Langlois, J. A. & Sattin, R.W. (2005). Traumatic brain injury in the United States: research and programs of the centers for disease control and prevention (CDC). The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20(3), 187-188. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001199-200505000-00001
Li, Y., Zhang, L., Kallakuri, S., Cohen, A. & Cavanaugh, J. M. (2015). Correlation of mechanical impact responses and biomarker levels: a new model for biomarker evaluation in TBI. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 359(1-2), 280-286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2015.08.035
Lin, W. J., Harnod, T., Lin, C. L., & Kao, C. H. (2019). Mortality Risk and Risk Factors in Patients with Posttraumatic Epilepsy: A Population-Based Cohort Study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(4), 589. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040589
Maas, A. I., Stocchetti, N. & Bullok, R. (2008). Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. The Lancet Neurology, 7(8),728-741. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70164-9
McCracken, E., Hunter, A. J., Patel, S., Graham, D. I. & Dewar, D. (1999). Calpain activation and cytoskeletal protein breakdown in the corpus callosum of head-injured patients. Journal of Neurotrauma, 16(9), 749-761. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.1999.16.749
Saatman, K. E., Abai, B., Grosvenor, A.,Vorwerk, C. K., Smith, D. H. & Meaney, D. F. (2003).Traumatic axonal injury results in biphasic calpain activation and retrograde transport impairment in mice. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism, 23(1), 34-42. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.WCB.0000035040.10031.B0
Smith, D. H., Meaney, D. F. & Shull, W. H. (2003). Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 18(4), 307-316. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001199-200307000-00003
Tang-Schomer, M. D., Johnson, V. E., Baas, P. W., Stewart, W. & Smith, D. H. (2012). Partial interruption of axonal transport due to microtubule breakage accounts for the formation of periodic varicosities after traumatic axonal injury. Experimental Neurology, 233(1), 364-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.10.030
Unden, J. & Romner, B. (2010). Can low serum levels of S100B predict normal CT findings after minor head injury in adults?: An evidence-based review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 25(4), 228–240.
Wiesmann, M., Steinmeier, E., Magerkurth, O, Linn, J., Gottmann, D. & Missler, U. (2010). Outcome prediction in traumatic brain injury: comparison of neurological status, CT findings, and blood levels of S100B and GFAP. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica,121 (3), 178-185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0404.2009.01196.x
Zetterberg, H., Smith, D. H. & Blennow, K. (2013). Biomarkers of mild traumatic brain injury in cerebrospinal fluid and blood. Nature Reviews Neurology, 9(4), 201–210.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2020 The Authors & LUMEN Publishing House
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant this journal right of first publication, with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work, with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g. in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as an earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
BRAIN. Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal has an Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
CC BY-NC-ND
